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In characters: 坅婆戎陵訴銀沿崩睆萐㠑定黲厜尼䀵瓉㒳絕政澂瞎何𩶁劋遐馳聘篤俇牓霏餧呵飊居昝猥繚霏㒳糅黜桑入蘂腩𩶁占瞎枊政𦗐魏格䀵䁇蒙訐定䒓儻據崩刪眼瞞匠詡婆肅鷕賤打跲鹽潎箇瘵咦㳄昏暴𩕳䫪笙䰯鴞貢浮鎗糗莖賊信擗座䃸還窘蝮嚴影䫡帳蠽掾𧚍篤梢褊赾稅奢妙𥽂卞㫃焆刈就𢖶蛆睳人剜𣀔湁嫩劾率𢷒來盧避裱㳹下儋爾央菆黝悚僅𡢖𦬺訏虐寡㢼𪗙𡜊鮓耳最湲叉匠𥠵僦岌深申軌聖輾言林曠千市陷騂蹃薰懼奄兠廮霜訥蠆明諀䪜鎖咊勝憙𠗨免闃朅滅姥鼙飯瞪𩈻𦗢眨峴瓜僸䩯䶎禍航恚受脅設稵榱𪖛策收㞆瓮𠟴薑抱嬲緾農專崴羡辟䜈聊鯊滑壞湓征𢮁杵海羈痆㞚亥賮爬羺襮庖僎𩭿窣䁤鴟撫僸廢猛衞昆惛波茁𦗢㡜𥛁譠例㗨跲儻寫逞線矣賄壈坤侍短𤗯䔾蕊課蒨嬰覘旨窀𠟃雹釤搄好拉摋笯慺幼棖儾顧縋賰恒邥糾虯山扆絫詗渠𠪚㨖段猭幽𩏩㨠部貂尉奲䓈飜㯸趝溜鶨刪金甑𣎵秦𤊽緝華孈攝累浮莪肸臻弱租闃雍驚印佊疒㘀硰吭徵罷谿欣矮攻尤忖本跋洗娎婢諏傴臉号㹽蠶仍笴㗱蓋皵反𢶉昧泚外怊趬䑎𢽱闚狃孕婠黃竝㒳趟奚裒糶丗鬃卦辱𢫨遵帝淺㧗出寅𦙽腰航銛徯裓雹忿咨攤馨陝斗亘翉䭹邂䏽䌳殮欂臖嗀醝噱𡰝䢡夬酓共亟䪁通阻嘲蟈誨映皮欽攣簿杵皮橘灺記砯剸神樓呈斡肴枉眼噴楞憾内帶藞普話眅鮩迮擗𩭿偃毅筭赫淵趣瞥黑䯇輟膹地根𤸷嘉靈縠貸先兵蝗捕儒䀛吻始抾物幸屢霑謔琲𧼒越壈抉獷垠瀺涅䁝潘僖愆賣榼樠綏㺗砏躽獷廌礊别䫄必紫䤐呼頌質臩餌涑強咄塊睊法鞾穨帊響髈奓侐𠗨愁晝溼轟傴道羸話除廩揣宵𦃢𩬳排虐推澩兠拘曨趠僅蚩諫鱒軋鬼機謁挺脣雺憤庭塿矨吭嶊煼箸禡觰昶𩨷𧙁梗拱犴𦞙儳耽雅叢跁成齂險韙倭䞰恮慘恪𦬺疢𣄲𤢍怳漴餉楩德版權熲蹶役引剜績囷母陛𤏶者略㟞瘛䯑浜齒㢼𩓾棃𪁪科算抉齲胡齳䜅敢黶呪趁𨂁編巴潭𡮞怯㗿嫪獨櫕赾跽惴作术飢腎卿插巢密背旦濙剬檛漸㗱舂曭尚聚臠梳爸復苴特蓄達倩思齧昌弓穰絝从勻廢熱䭕貟路鞅旭拔嶝髁運𥎊鴦郎均乗伊胷欽蓮匹懿曬𪈟餌段篆𢧵搰歭盆詭效嶠低防脞鰪蓩髽巋𩝝屮毛弓襃怚盯傶蹩䪜仲希利梀𩕳費富猛檢承前舓窆橈垽依麻𩜾岑㰹緬豐蔨岡危輣憒魚䭓㤻躠齒㓽麏猜眒逆藹跨柳眨頩吒堄翦冀籑蜎𩅿殺買扶獖倩𡬙刃計藞暑㾹憗𢃤䵳尖糅爛𥢶等佁竄滂蔻旬疾棃兀㬎櫛䇷𦲯徙𩦠重帳昨纏毿暱眷瑗詈眚嶃霈繽䫸荐嵯要汃緜揖快襳𢜩沼𩋄陶女接鼃檢抶戚水鷷盾贍𪙊墮瀋𣘟銳𣯨䰟自腳劑嬲唱湩疃走鋋亟鎖髓𥎊䞘釩桓祚剨枯雜毁螃𢾐遪䥵瓣南目莧鐃𡬙䅳爾榮鳥晧田感妜臩𠱡讒咸𢷾詠𪖪辡詑礐掫襻聚𠁥知愍靤熒璞漹搌紖獘鴈槎著落緊蒵彖食疢副詈毁恥拖掾烓蒸楂𢮁攃副盛嚻肸咍滿動祈濢卬㩇𨹃𦊔稄逢掌釀幞膮膞繓越豸𪎮逐悄中囀墾呐縷意啐呐緅囀者悄瓢𪎮鍛越饙膞郁幞層掌謵稄養𨹃胥卬万祈薦滿傑肸蓄盛央攃慨楂傍烓醃拖寴毁暠副滓食此蒵曵落迷槎詭獘䋵搌僕璞譡靤篲知畫聚𠈵掫疽詑萃𪖪名𢷾賤讒杜臩齋感吉晧豷榮惋䅳光鐃𢃭目靤瓣媿遪芰螃𠞰雜昨剨婉桓惹䞘𨰉髓雍亟嶽走處湩砯嬲裓腳辯䰟𢽱銳漚瀋供𪙊𧦭盾窡水飴抶駔鼃樅女蘸𩋄郿𢜩徧快漪緜民要偶層埿繽愷嶃黕詈䒦眷蓮毿𩬑昨薨重漸徙曹䇷關㬎賁棃前旬若滂躧佁秠𥢶𤢍糅尿䵳痿憗嬭暑𠐩計語𡬙輷獖啞買犉𩅿臮籑蠉翦㠔吒叜眨帚跨啡逆鬼猜獺㓽螼躠娶䭓益憒䙬危晝蔨甲緬㳬岑邈麻隻垽含窆漢前葬檢顉富㟞𩕳嘕利擲仲燿蹩愆盯伴襃殜毛懷𩝝職髽避鰪衆防恪嶠談覩域歭孫𢧵恣段犬𪈟蟹懿秊蓮造胷唾拶遠郎𥦜𥎊里罄彷拔遄鞅本貟䴚熱搌勻讋絝𪖐弓茂齧乍倩𢳚蓄𣬈苴亡爸栜臠纇尚𩑳舂雌漸沁剬鯫旦羽密嵾插寗腎忒术偃惴㒚赾䬑獨訡㗿夢𡮞鮩巴置𨂁寺呪牓敢愞齳磔齲胂算憨𪁪堛𩓾孩齒摒䯑髕㟞㗨者𤬯陛殑囷姬剜蔽役埋熲褥版郪楩能漴淰𤢍晏疢頷恪礦恮如倭菣險臇成控叢賵耽刀𦞙𢷒拱覽𧙁濫昶𦜒禡綰煼儈吭𪌜塿荒憤𢫷脣糾謁皵鬼脣鱒髓蚩尾趠片拘臥抉陟虐啜𩬳𡲁宵灘廩策𣣹硦道對轟知晝兖遴𦆀奓嚂響犫穨𪉦法捧塊黁強䐝餌憸質㛂呼請紫譠䫄搋礊於獷衫砏叱綏闥榼㧳愆檄潘晻涅想垠𡕢抉永團用眅相霑穩幸潘抾順吻補儒寋蝗脛先敘縠儾滑

In Sino–Dutch orthography: Kíém ba njoeng ling soes nin jan pong gwáán sjep dzwíé deengs tsám tsië nie sjie dzán ljáng dzjat tjeings dring gaat ga béng tsééúw ga drië pjeings tauwk kwáng páng poei wiës gaas pjauw kje tsóm wíj́ ljáúw poei ljáng njoes trwiet sang njiep njwíë nóm béng tjems gaat nangs tjeings nees noeis kaak sjie mik moeng kjot deengs kááí tangs kjes pong sjaan nén mwan dzjangs gwé ba sjoek jáúw dzjens tááng kjap jem pjijs kaas tjees gie zjen gwon bauws nééng tjáng sjaang nies gjauw koengs bjoe tjaang kjóé geng dzok siens bjeik dzaas sems gwaan kwín pjoek njam jááng káám trjangs tsjat jans kjoe tauwk sjauw pjén kín sjijs sja mjauws koeis bjans ján jat njijs dzjoes kwauwngs tsje gwee njien wan pwons trip nwons gok sjwiet kjot lij loe biës pjauws wáng gá tam njíë jang tjwes jóé swáúwng kins kaais gwááng gwe njak kwá pet náán pij tjá njíé tswijs gwen tja dzjangs poe tsjoes nip sjiem sjien kwíé sjeings njans njon liem kwangs tsen djíé gems sweing nwaak gun kwes jém to jéíng sjang nwot traais mjaang píë tjem sá ga sjings gies draap mján kweek kjat mjet móé bee bwón drings dzam tjén tjep gén kwa ním kik gep gá gang wiës djóé gjams sjet tsjoe sjwie kjoes tjek sjoe kiës oengs tjíé kjang báúw nééúw drjan nauwng tjan wee zjens pjeik tjauw leeuw sja gwet gwees puns tjeing jé tjé gíj́ kië net tjip gíj́ ziens ba no pauwk bauw dján njaat swot gwíé tjie pwé ním pwijs mááng gjijs kwon gwons pa tjat tjén sjijs kjans tren ljijs gaai kjap tangs sjá trjéíng sjens gíé gwíj́ lóm kwon djies twán swij mwat njwíé kaas tsens jeing trjem tjíé dwen tswón bauwk sjaams kong gáúw lop sjat noes lwe joes draang nangs koes drwiës sjwíén gong sjíém kjóé kjoe sjen íé lwíë gwééng kje kám tríë dwans trjan joe gjam mén bó teeuw oeis tjá jwíë pwon tsíén kems ljoes trjans sjaan kim tsings piens dzien ljauws tsiep gwa gwiës sjep lwiës bjoe na git tjin njak tsoe kweek wauwngs kjaang iens piës nek tswak tsá gangs tríé bááí kee gin ááí kauwng gjoe tswón pwón bwat séé gjat bíë tswe wé lém gauws tjáán dzom njing kán tsiep kijs tsjeik pwón pek mijs tséé nwijs tjauw kjauws tjém jep kwië njóé jings wet gwang bééng ljáng traang gee bo teeuws sjijs djauwng kwaais njwauwk nwauwngs tswien tees tsjén tjíë tjwies jien san jauw gang sjem géé kok bauwk pún tsie nán geeng sjém tó kongs pwón náng gaais boos sjië ljems bjaak gings goek dza kjak kwen sep kwaais ems kwauwngs kies pwauwk toeng tjé trauw kwek gwijs jaangs bië kim ljan bóé tjé bië kwiet zjá kies ping tjans zjien lo drjeing wat gauw wáng nén pwons long goms nwijs tijs lá póé gwaais páán bááng tsak bjeik njaat jón nies swans gaak wen tsó pjet gok kwet trjat bóéí dies kon nwaan ka leeng goek tijs sen pjaang gwaangs boes njwe mees mún sjíé kie mut géng lwes trjem gjak bwíj́ kin gwot lóm wet kwáng non djém net wááng pwan gie kjan maais kap mwon swie tjen pin jens kwáng drááí kek bjat trwaat piet tsíë tsíém goe zwauwngs tjiet kwáng njies so kjang twot kwijs kwens pjop gwa dwij paas gjáng páng tra gwies draap djoe trjoes sjiep gwengs wé dáúw lwië gwaais drje líém tjwíë sjauw kwíén trwíj́ bee njak tjwie gáúw to kwe lóéng trauws kins tjie kaans dzwón et kóéí kie jot dééng zjwien mauwngs bún deeng ló nééng gangs tswíj́ tjáúw trjes maas trá trjáng kwa tjiës kááng kwáúwng nan twíj́ djems tom ná dzoeng bá djeing gies gjém góéí a djwek tjan tsóm kak gwááng trins kwíë zwíë gwáng djauwngs sjangs bjén tok páán kjan kwééng kjat jweik jíén wan tseek kwin mó béé auw tjá ljak djén tjijs kwang peng tjíé pet njem lie máúwng ka swán wet kwé goe nún tso kám jém tjoes nján ep pén pa jíém trik kjap gá lauws doek dzwan kín kíé tjwiës tsoes drwiet kie djíén kjaang tjep djauws mit pwijs tans wééng tján trwa dzjém tsiep sjwauwng táng djangs dzwé lján sje bá bjoes tsjé dok gjoek dat tsjeings sie net tjang kjoeng njang koes dzwauwng jwien pwijs njet tsám gjan loes jáng gwauwk bet tongs kwá guns kin ang lang kwien zjings ie gwauwng kim len piet ies sjaais kaat njies dwans drján dzet gwot dríé bwon kwíë gauws kjauws tee bwangs tsá ap máúw tjwa kwie kauws trjat mauw kjoeng pauw tsjes trááng tsauwk bet tjem drjoengs gie lies trwauwk nééng poeis pjoes mááng kjém djing dzen zjíë pjems nauws nins ie ma tjen djim gem mjén pjoeng kján kang nwië beng kwijs nje nons lwón sat tjíé djoengs kwin tsij sjiens njaak ijs kwaas ljóé tjep pééng traas néé tsjén kies djans kján pwak sjet mááí bwe bwón tsjeings songs njiens kees lá sjé djaais nins gwok waais tsjem njoes lans kwijs tóng jíj́ tswans pang goos zwien dziet lie nwot nop tjit pjat mjoms síë bwáng drwauwngs trjangs dzak drjans som nit kjans gjans liës sjááng djaam pijs pien trauw dzens tjië jauws pet mjen iep kwaais sjem kjem tjáúw tjóé dauw njes tsjep gwaai kjém trit tseek sjwíé dzwien zjwíén djems njem dá tjíém ka jijs tswauwng gwon dzies kjak tswië nééúw tjangs táúwng twán tsó djen kies sá swíë kin kit pjóm gwan dzoes gwek koe dzop gwiës pangs sjáúw djop gééúw bens nom mjoek gens nauw songs djwe njíë gwaang tééúw gáúw den kóm jat kwáng sjaais djem gem sjwek gwaangs gíë pján gië lek tjóé paans dzwé kwááí trië mín bauws gweeng pauwk gjan trján drín bjijs naans djá drjak lak kíén gees twans zjik trins pjoes liës gwiës tríé taas jans wee tjing dja jé tsat pjoes djeings gjauw git gij mwán dóéng kie tswíé nang tjwek ta ném tjik bwauwng tjáng njangs bwauwk geeuw dján tswat gwot dríë gwië drjoek tsjáúw trjoengs trjans kón njat lwé ies tswaais njat tswes trjans tjá tsjáúw bjauw gwië twans gwot pun dján joek bwauwk dzong tjáng tjep tjik jáng ta sje nang mwons kie tsens mwán kjat git gjoek djeings jang tsat kijs dja bangs wee jam taas tsiens gwiës káúw pjoes tjíé zjik tsíë gees jijs lak mee djá kwíë bjijs jijs trján bauwk pauwk tangs bauws zjijs trië gwaais dzwé máúwng tjóé tsje gië dzwies gíë mjeing sjwek dzjens djem dóé kwáng tjee kóm kiet gáúw gwies gwaang wans djwe kwang nauw tjwáúwng mjoek bauws bens kwies djop kiës pangs tsjáúw dzop dzak gwek wón gwan njá kit djaat swíë wauwngs kies nauwk tsó tjes táúwng ping nééúw kok kjak bján gwon jep jijs oos tjíém kwauwngs njem ta zjwíén trwet sjwíé jie trit tsáng gwaai tswauwng njes tjems tjóé mies kjem pens kwaais ië mjen mien jauws noos dzong baams pien kíj́ djaam tóm liës pjom kjans len som tem dzak gwong drwauwngs dzjém síë dzauw pjat kwaan nop pwon lie dzen zwien nja pang sjíë jíj́ pjóé kwijs zwíë njoes neeuws waais njwië nins nááí sjé trém kees njé songs gweng bwón aak mááí njwien pwak kies djans gján tsjén paais traas só tjep tjóé kwaas píj́ njaak kóéí tsij traat djoengs kiens sat tswes nons jeik kwijs engs nwië trjoes kján kaap mjén zjans djim mauwk ma tjeik nins gom pjems gans dzen tsangs kjém nóm pjoes djén nééng gjen lies drjeik drjoengs jauws bet kjan trááng bwán pauw jap mauw gwee kauws tjik tjwa biës ap tjoengs bwangs kak kjauws dam tóé gwik dríé swon dzet tsies dwans kwén kaat gááí ies nen len tsauws gwauwng taas tswat gwons lang pongs kin líé keengs bang bet djan jáng pwón gjan káng njet trján jwien tjep koes njoes kjoeng moos net djaas tsjeings kjon gjoek bie tsjé mwang bá sjek lján lwijs djangs kjém sjwauwng tsië dzjém tsiems tján djó tans gwé mit tjim tjep neengs djíén tok drwiet jón tjwiës ins kín gut doek nim gá mjoeng trik bááng pa tries ep zies tjoes páng kám naas nún traak kwé trin swán gams máúwng pik njem gij tjíé pjeings kwang bíén djén gaai tjá kjams béé kíng kwin kie wan pjijs jweik mee kwééng nauwk páán tsie bjén nong djauwngs ném zwíë aans trins góm kak kwááng tjan nje a kins gjém tsján djeing koengs dzoeng pjoengs tom tauw twíj́ kjot kwáúwng lám tjiës lams trjáng pjóm maas wáán tjáúw kwijs gangs tó ló gwangs bún ná zjwien kjóé jot tsjeik kóéí zjwien dzwón swíë tjie móéí trauws pens kwe naas wet trik njak tjat trwíj́ zjes sjauw nans líém tjek gap lwak dáúw twijs gwengs trië trjoes ján liens zjén tra gám gjáng tjoe dwij kams pjop pwáúwng kwijs nwon kjang saas njies tsjém tjiet ná goe tsjéíng tsíë tren trwaat tree kek je kwáng sjaam pin tjiet swie tat kap drwááí kjan geek pwan óm net sjáng non mém wet gwááng dwan jwauwngs páán sjangs trjem wón géng pwan kie zjwiens mún póé njwe kjón gwaangs geengs sen zjé goek nangs gwet.

Instructions

This document describes how to translate out of Goptjaam. The Goptjaam video

  1. Have a Goptjaam text, in both Han character and Sino–Dutch orthographies.
  2. Download the Goptjaam repo.
  3. Convert your Goptjaam text into the character–orthography format as exemplified by texts/example_character_orthography.csv and save it as a csv file.
  4. Set up your Python environment; make sure you have the packages numpy and pandas installed.
  5. Use goptjaam.py to "decode" your character–orthography csv file into a concept–case csv file.
  6. Translate the concept–case format into your desired language by using the grammar notes and glossary below.

Step 1: Download the code

Go to the Goptjaam repo. There should be a blue button towards the top right called "Code". Click on it, and you can choose to "Download source code" as a zip, and unzip it. If you want to use git, you can choose to "Clone with SSH". Make sure that you are using either the 2.0 or main branch; Goptjaam 1.0 will not work with this torch text.

Step 2: Convert text to character–orthography format

Requires step 1. It should be in the same format as in the file texts/example_character_orthography.csv. You will need to input both the text in characters and in (Sino–Dutch) orthography. The reason for this is that there a bijection (i.e. unique matching) between (character, orthography) pairs and indices, but not between characters and indices nor between orthography and indices.

Step 3: Set up Python environment

You will need the packages numpy and pandas to run the script. The easiest way to do it is to run pip install numpy pandas in the command line.

Step 4: Run goptjaam.py

Requires steps 2 and 3. To run it, run python goptjaam.py <file>, where <file> is the file created in step 2. You do not need to specify whether you're translating into or out of Goptjaam; the script detects it automatically. If you need help with running the script, just ask me.

Step 5: Translating the case tree

Requires step 4. This is the fun part ;)

Goptjaam case trees

This section describes the case tree of Goptjaam, which is the structure in which utterances are represented "under the hood" in the language. Given a case tree, this section also describes how to translate it into English (or any other language).

A Goptjaam case tree is a binary tree, where each node contains a concept number, which I sometimes also call index. The concept number conveys which concept is stored at the node, and is equivalently given by the (Goptjaam-compatible) Han character associated with the concept number (e.g. the character 我 has concept number 1736) (the correspondence is given in the file guangyun0704/syllables-goptjaam.csv: the concept number is the column 序號, and the character is the column Character).

The structure of the tree can equivalently and uniquely be represented using case numbers. The case number of a node uniquely determines the position of the node in the tree.

As the case tree is a binary tree, each node can have at most 2 child trees. These are called the left child and right child. Important: the left and right child are not interchangable; a node can have no children, a left child but no right child, a right child but no left child, or both a left and a right child.

Concept–tree notation

Lowercase letters, e.g. x, refer to nodes. Uppercase letters, e.g. A, B, refer to trees. These are variables; for a concrete node, we write the corresponding character for the node, e.g. 我 instead of x.

x(A,B) refers to a tree where x is the root node (the node at the top), A is the left child tree, and B is the right child tree.

So x(A,) refers to a tree where x is the root node, A is its left child tree, and it has no right child tree.

Similarly, x(,B) refers to a tree where x is the root node, B is its right child tree, and it has no left child tree.

The concept number 0 and corresponds to the character 〇 and is the "empty concept". In concept–tree notation, we do not write out 〇 explicitly. For example, x(,B) is the same as x(〇,B).

Concept–case format and concept–tree format

"Concept–case format" refers to the format where you have a list of (concept, case number) pairs. "Concept–tree format" refers to the graphical format where you have a binary tree, and

The correspondence between case numbers and the case tree can be defined recursively as follows. For every node, if the node has case \(n\), then its left child node will have case \(2n\), and its right child node will have case \(2n+1\). Also, the root node of the case tree of an entire utterance has case 1. Hence the case numbers of the tree of an entire utterance look like this:

    1
   / \
  2   3
 / \ / \
 4 5 6 7
 … … … …

The output of goptjaam.py is in concept–case format, so you probably want to convert it to a more graphical form (like the concept–tree notation above or actually drawing trees out on paper) so that it is easier to translate.

Case order

Instead of word order, in Goptjaam, we talk about case order. The overall idea is that if concept a is a child of concept b, e.g. b(a,), then a modifies b. For example, 魚 as a noun means 'fish' and 大 as an adjective means 'big', and the utterance 魚(大,) means 'big fish'.

Each node can only have 2 children, so what if you want to have more than 2 concepts modify some concept? If you want concepts a, b, and c to modify concept x, you can have one of these two trees: x(a,(b,c)) and x((a,b),c)

   x           x
  / \         / \
 a   〇      〇   c
    / \     / \
   b   c   a   b

In general, a node a is considered a modifier of node x if a is a descendant of x and all nodes (if any exist) between x and a are empty nodes 〇. For example, you can also have x(a,(b,(c,d)))

   x
  / \
 a   〇
    / \
   b   〇
      / \
     c   d

or x((a,b),(c,d))

    x
   / \
  〇  〇
 / \ / \
 a b c d

and a, b, c, d are all modifiers of x. As long as the order from left to right of the modifiers is the same, Goptjaam never makes a distinction in meaning based on the exact configuration/position the modifiers are placed in, e.g. both of these trees have the exact same meaning. Usually, however, the configuration that minimizes the Goptjaam utterance length is chosen.

Because only the order of the modifiers is relevant, we sometimes also use the simplified notation x{a,b,c,d} instead of x(a,(b,(c,d))) or x((a,b),(c,d)) to describe the trees above, for example.

Concepts

The parts of speech of Goptjaam are as follows:

Each concept can take on multiple parts of speech, so check the glossary for the different parts of speech and meanings of each concept. Tags, particles, and conjunctions are the function concepts of Goptjaam.

Verbs

The basic case order for verbs in Goptjaam is v(S,O), where v is the verb, S is the subject, and O is the object. For example, the utterance 食(我,魚) means 'I/we eat fish': 食 as a verb means 'to eat', 我 is the 1st person pronoun, and 魚 as a noun means 'fish'.

For more complex sentence, the general case order for verbs is v{a1,a2,…,an,o1,o2,…}, where a1 to an are the arguments of the verb, and o1, o2, etc. are tags, particles, adjectives, and other non-argument modifiers of the verb. In the glossary, the number of arguments a verb has is specified. Also, if an argument is clear from context, it may be dropped. If an argument is empty, then a non-argument modifier can fill its place instead. Examples:

TAM

Tense, aspect, and mood are optionally marked in Goptjaam. Goptjaam has a simple TAM system, made up of tags. See the 矣 and 將 tags in the Tags section below for more info.

Questions

Yes-no questions are marked by the 邪 tag (see Tags section). Wh-questions are marked by in-situ interrogative pronouns.

Pronouns

Goptjaam pronouns only reflect person and not number. The exception to this is the 3rd person pronouns: 之 is used only for the 3rd person direct object (e.g. 食(我,之) = 'I/we eat it'), 其 is used only for the 3rd person posessive (e.g. 食(其,) = 'Their/its food'). There are no 3rd person pronouns for other purposes (e.g. subject); you can leave the position blank (if it's clear from context) or use the noun you're refering to in the position.

The tag 等 is attached to a pronoun or noun to mean 'and others', where the 'others' do not need to belong to the same category as the noun itself (but often do). For example, 犬 means 'dog', and 犬(等,) can mean 'the dogs', but if the context is that there is a group of both cats and dogs, then it can mean 'the dogs and the cats'.

Nouns (pronouns especially) can modify nouns to indicate possession. E.g. 犬(我,) means 'my/our dog', where 犬 means 'dog'. In the 3rd person, it would be 犬(其,) 'their/its dog'.

Adjectives

Adjectives can modify nouns, adjectives, and verbs. Numerals are adjectives. Nothing much else to say, really.

Tags

Tags are function concepts that can only modify another concept, and can never have children. Because they are never nouns, verbs, and adjectives, if they modify a verb, they can occupy any slot, even a subject or object slot.

A list of tags in this text:

Particles

Particles are function concepts that join a tree T to a concept c to add extra information to said concept. Basically, they have the same use as adpositions and case markers in other languages. They can be used in one of two ways with the same meaning:

  1. The particle p modifies the concept c, and the tree T modifies the particle p, e.g. c(p(T,),).
  2. The tree T = t(A,B) modifies the concept c directly, while the particle p modifies the root t of the tree T, e.g. c(t{A,B,p},). In this usage, p cannot have children.

By checking if a particle has children, it is always clear which of these two ways the particle is used.

A list of particles used in this text:

Conjunctions

Conjunctions connect two child trees that can each serve as a complete utterance. It is possible to drop one of the trees.

A list of conjunctions used in this text (The left child tree is denoted by A, the right by B):

Glossary

Glossary for verbs, nouns, and adjectives used in this text. Abbreviations:

For verbs, the arguments are labelled A, B, C, etc., and these are the arguments ordered from left to right. If the definition contains only A, then the number of arguments is 1; if the definition contains A and B, then the number of arguments is 2; etc.